APUSH Period 7 Study Guide (1890-1945)

Period 7 encompasses significant shifts, including Progressivism, Imperialism, the Great Depression, and two World Wars, profoundly reshaping American society and its global role․

Period 7 (1890-1945) marks a transformative era in American history, witnessing rapid industrialization, urbanization, and a burgeoning consumer culture․ The nation transitioned from a largely rural, agrarian society to a global economic and military power․ This period saw the rise of big business, alongside calls for Progressive reforms to address social and economic inequalities․

American foreign policy shifted towards imperialism, culminating in the Spanish-American War and increased involvement in international affairs․ The era was punctuated by the devastation of two World Wars and the economic hardship of the Great Depression, ultimately leading to Franklin D․ Roosevelt’s New Deal programs․

II․ Key Concept 7․1: Growth of American Economic Power

Key Concept 7․1 highlights the dramatic expansion of American economic power during this period․ New technologies, like electricity and the assembly line, fueled industrial growth and increased production efficiency․ This led to improved standards of living and greater personal mobility, alongside better communication systems․ The rise of big business and monopolies, however, created economic disparities and prompted calls for regulation․

Consumer goods became more accessible, fostering a burgeoning consumer culture․ These economic shifts fundamentally altered American society, creating both opportunities and challenges for various groups, including new immigrants and workers․

A․ Technological Innovation & Industrial Growth

Technological advancements were central to industrial growth, transforming the American landscape․ Innovations like electricity, steel production, and the telephone revolutionized industries and daily life․ The assembly line, pioneered by Henry Ford, dramatically increased manufacturing efficiency, lowering costs and boosting production․ These changes spurred economic expansion and created new job opportunities, though often under harsh conditions․

Improved communication systems, such as the telegraph and telephone, facilitated business operations and connected distant regions․ This period witnessed a surge in patents and inventions, driving further innovation and economic progress․

B․ Rise of Big Business & Monopolies

The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the emergence of “Big Business” and monopolies, driven by industrial growth and laissez-faire policies․ Powerful industrialists like Rockefeller (oil), Carnegie (steel), and Vanderbilt (railroads) amassed immense wealth and controlled vast sectors of the economy․ These monopolies often stifled competition, manipulated prices, and exploited workers․

Horizontal and vertical integration became common strategies for achieving dominance․ Public outcry over unfair practices led to calls for government regulation, ultimately resulting in legislation like the Sherman Antitrust Act, though its initial enforcement was limited․

III․ Imperialism and American Foreign Policy

By the late 19th century, the United States began to pursue an increasingly expansionist foreign policy, driven by economic interests, political ambitions, and a belief in cultural superiority․ This “New Imperialism” saw America acquiring territories in the Pacific, Latin America, and asserting influence globally․ Debates arose regarding the morality and constitutionality of imperialism․

The Spanish-American War (1898) marked a turning point, resulting in the US gaining control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines․ This expansion fueled further involvement in international affairs and set the stage for America’s role as a world power․

A․ Motivations for Imperialism

Several factors propelled American imperialism․ Economic desires for new markets and resources were paramount, fueled by industrial growth and overproduction․ Political motivations included a desire for strategic military bases and increased international prestige, mirroring European powers․

Ideological justifications, like Social Darwinism and the “White Man’s Burden,” promoted the belief in American superiority and a duty to “civilize” other nations․ Furthermore, Alfred Thayer Mahan’s theories emphasized naval power, advocating for a strong navy and control of key sea lanes to project American influence globally․

B․ The Spanish-American War (1898)

The Spanish-American War stemmed from Cuban independence struggles and American economic interests in Cuba․ The sinking of the USS Maine in Havana harbor, attributed (though controversially) to Spain, ignited public outrage and fueled calls for war․

The conflict was brief but decisive, resulting in American victories in Cuba and the Philippines․ The Treaty of Paris (1898) ceded Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Guam to the US, and the Philippines were purchased for $20 million․ This marked America’s emergence as a global power, sparking debates over imperialism․

C․ American Expansion in the Pacific & Latin America

Following the Spanish-American War, the US pursued an expansionist foreign policy․ In the Pacific, annexation of Hawaii (1898) provided a strategic naval base and access to Asian markets․ American interests in the Philippines led to a prolonged and brutal Philippine-American War․

In Latin America, the US asserted dominance through economic and political intervention․ The Platt Amendment (1901) granted the US the right to intervene in Cuban affairs․ Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine justified US intervention to stabilize Latin American nations, furthering American influence․

IV․ The Progressive Era (1900-1920)

The Progressive Era addressed problems stemming from industrialization, urbanization, and immigration․ Progressives aimed to reform government, regulate big business, and improve social conditions․ Key goals included political democracy, economic fairness, and social justice․

Reforms encompassed initiatives like trust-busting, consumer protection laws (Pure Food and Drug Act), and conservation efforts․ Political reforms included direct election of senators (17th Amendment) and women’s suffrage (19th Amendment)․ Theodore Roosevelt’s “Square Deal” and Woodrow Wilson’s “New Freedom” embodied progressive ideals, though approaches differed․

A․ Goals of the Progressive Movement

Progressives sought to address societal ills arising from rapid industrialization and urbanization․ Core goals centered on enhancing democracy through political reforms like initiative, referendum, and recall, empowering citizens directly․ Economically, they aimed for fairness by regulating monopolies and protecting consumers via legislation like the Pure Food and Drug Act․

Socially, Progressives championed improved working conditions, child labor laws, and temperance․ They believed in using government intervention to correct injustices and promote the general welfare, fostering a more equitable and just society for all Americans․

B․ Key Progressive Reforms (Political, Economic, Social)

Political reforms included the 17th Amendment (direct election of senators), and voting rights expansions․ Economically, antitrust legislation like the Sherman Antitrust Act aimed to curb monopolies, alongside regulations protecting consumers from unsafe products․ Socially, reforms addressed labor issues with laws limiting working hours and banning child labor․

Furthermore, the establishment of food safety standards, like those outlined in the Pure Food and Drug Act, and conservation efforts to protect natural resources marked significant progressive achievements, improving daily life and promoting sustainability․

C․ Theodore Roosevelt and Progressive Policies

Theodore Roosevelt embodied the Progressive spirit, championing “trust-busting” to dismantle harmful monopolies while distinguishing between “good” and “bad” trusts․ His Square Deal advocated for fair dealings for workers, consumers, and businesses․ Roosevelt significantly expanded the power of the presidency and federal government intervention in the economy․

He also prioritized conservation, establishing national parks and forests, protecting natural resources for future generations․ Roosevelt’s assertive foreign policy, including negotiating the end of the Russo-Japanese War, demonstrated America’s growing global influence․

D․ Woodrow Wilson and New Freedom

Woodrow Wilson’s “New Freedom” aimed to dismantle economic inequalities and restore competition․ He lowered tariffs with the Clayton Antitrust Act, strengthened anti-monopoly laws, and established the Federal Trade Commission to prevent unfair business practices․ A key achievement was the creation of the Federal Reserve System, providing a more stable financial system․

Wilson also enacted progressive income tax with the 16th Amendment․ Despite his domestic successes, Wilson’s segregationist views and handling of civil rights represent a significant contradiction within the Progressive Era․

V․ World War I (1914-1918)

Initially neutral, the US entered WWI in 1917 due to Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare, including the sinking of the Lusitania, and the Zimmerman Telegram proposing an alliance with Mexico․ The home front experienced mobilization, with industries shifting to war production and increased government control over the economy․

WWI profoundly impacted American society, fostering patriotism but also suppressing dissent through measures like the Espionage and Sedition Acts․ The war contributed to the Great Migration of African Americans seeking industrial jobs, and laid the groundwork for future international involvement․

A․ Causes of American Entry into WWI

American neutrality was challenged by several factors․ Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare, targeting even neutral ships, culminated in the sinking of the Lusitania in 1915, inflaming public opinion․ Economic ties with the Allied powers fostered a pro-Allied sentiment, as American trade heavily favored Britain and France․

The final catalyst was the Zimmerman Telegram, a German proposal to Mexico for an alliance against the US, intercepted by British intelligence․ This perceived threat to national security, combined with continued German aggression, prompted President Wilson to ask Congress for a declaration of war in April 1917․

B․ The Home Front During WWI

World War I dramatically transformed the American home front․ The government mobilized resources through agencies like the War Industries Board, directing economic production․ Propaganda campaigns, spearheaded by the Committee on Public Information, fostered patriotic fervor and demonized the enemy․

Civil liberties were curtailed with the passage of the Espionage and Sedition Acts, suppressing dissent and limiting freedom of speech․ Women entered the workforce in unprecedented numbers, filling jobs vacated by men serving overseas․ Great Migration saw African Americans move north for employment, facing continued discrimination․

C․ Impact of WWI on American Society

World War I left a lasting imprint on American society, fostering a climate of disillusionment and social change․ The war’s end witnessed the Red Scare, fueled by fears of communism and anarchism, leading to widespread repression of radical groups․

The 19th Amendment granted women suffrage, a culmination of decades of activism․ African American veterans, despite their service, continued to face racial discrimination and violence․ The war stimulated economic growth initially, but postwar adjustments brought instability and labor unrest, setting the stage for the Roaring Twenties․

VI․ The Roaring Twenties (1920-1929)

The 1920s represented a period of dramatic social and cultural change, marked by economic prosperity and a burgeoning consumer culture․ Mass production techniques fueled affordability, while advertising encouraged spending on new goods like automobiles and radios․ This era witnessed the rise of jazz music and the “flappers,” challenging traditional norms․

The Harlem Renaissance flourished, celebrating African American artistic expression․ However, beneath the surface of prosperity lay tensions, including nativism, Prohibition, and the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan, foreshadowing the coming economic crisis․

A․ Economic Prosperity & Consumer Culture

The 1920s experienced substantial economic growth driven by technological advancements and mass production․ Assembly lines, particularly in the automotive industry, increased efficiency and lowered costs, making goods accessible to a wider population․ Advertising played a crucial role, fostering a consumer culture focused on acquiring new products․

Installment buying allowed consumers to purchase items on credit, further stimulating demand․ Electricity became more widespread, powering new appliances and transforming daily life․ This prosperity, however, wasn’t universally shared, with agricultural sectors struggling․

B․ Social and Cultural Changes (Jazz Age, Flappers)

The “Roaring Twenties” witnessed dramatic social and cultural shifts․ The Jazz Age, originating in African American communities, became a national phenomenon, symbolizing modernity and rebellion against traditional norms․ “Flappers” challenged Victorian ideals with their liberated lifestyles – shorter hairstyles, dresses, and embracing social freedoms like smoking and drinking․

Prohibition, ironically, fueled speakeasies and organized crime․ New forms of entertainment, like radio and movies, gained popularity, creating a shared national culture․ These changes reflected a broader questioning of traditional values and a desire for individual expression․

C․ The Harlem Renaissance

The Harlem Renaissance, a flourishing of African American artistic and intellectual creativity during the 1920s and 30s, centered in Harlem, New York City․ It encompassed literature, music, art, and theater, expressing the Black experience and challenging racial stereotypes․ Key figures like Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and Duke Ellington gained prominence․

This cultural movement fostered a new sense of racial pride and identity, while also addressing issues of racial discrimination and inequality․ The Harlem Renaissance significantly impacted American culture, leaving a lasting legacy of artistic innovation and social commentary․

VII; The Great Depression (1929-1939)

The Great Depression, beginning with the 1929 stock market crash, was the most severe economic downturn in modern history․ Underlying causes included overproduction, unequal wealth distribution, and unstable banking practices․ Widespread unemployment and poverty gripped the nation, impacting all segments of society․

President Hoover initially favored a limited government response, relying on voluntary cooperation․ However, his policies proved inadequate, leading to growing public discontent․ The Depression fundamentally altered Americans’ views on the role of government in addressing economic crises, paving the way for the New Deal․

A․ Causes of the Great Depression

Several interconnected factors triggered the Great Depression․ Overproduction in both agriculture and industry created surpluses, driving down prices and profits․ Unequal distribution of wealth meant most Americans lacked the purchasing power to sustain economic growth․ Risky banking practices, including excessive speculation and insufficient regulation, led to widespread bank failures․

A global economic slowdown, exacerbated by high tariffs restricting international trade, further worsened the situation․ The stock market crash of 1929 served as a catalyst, exposing underlying economic weaknesses and triggering a downward spiral of declining investment and consumer spending․

B․ Hoover’s Response to the Depression

President Herbert Hoover initially believed the Depression was a temporary downturn, advocating for voluntary cooperation among businesses and limited government intervention․ He opposed direct relief to individuals, fearing it would undermine self-reliance․ Hoover supported the creation of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) to provide loans to banks and businesses, hoping to stimulate economic recovery through “trickle-down” economics;

However, these measures proved insufficient to address the crisis․ Public criticism grew as unemployment soared and hardship intensified, leading to protests like the Bonus Army march․ Hoover’s reluctance to embrace more aggressive government action ultimately contributed to his defeat in the 1932 election․

VIII․ The New Deal (1933-1939)

Franklin D․ Roosevelt’s New Deal represented a dramatic shift in the role of the federal government, aiming to address the Great Depression through relief, recovery, and reform․ The New Deal programs sought to provide immediate assistance to the unemployed and impoverished, stimulate economic growth, and prevent future economic crises․

Key initiatives included the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), Public Works Administration (PWA), and Works Progress Administration (WPA), creating jobs and infrastructure․ The Social Security Act established a safety net for the elderly and unemployed, fundamentally altering the relationship between citizens and the government․

A․ Franklin D․ Roosevelt and the New Deal

Franklin D․ Roosevelt (FDR) assumed the presidency during the depths of the Great Depression, offering Americans a “New Deal” – a series of programs and policies designed to alleviate suffering and restore prosperity․ His charismatic leadership and optimistic approach instilled hope during a time of widespread despair․

FDR’s willingness to experiment with unprecedented government intervention, coupled with his “fireside chats,” fostered a direct connection with the American people․ He skillfully navigated political opposition, expanding the role of the federal government and redefining the relationship between the state and its citizens․

B․ Key New Deal Programs (Relief, Recovery, Reform)

The New Deal comprised three main categories: Relief, Recovery, and Reform․ Relief programs, like the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA), provided direct aid to the unemployed and impoverished․ Recovery measures, such as the Public Works Administration (PWA) and Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA), aimed to stimulate economic growth․

Reform initiatives, including the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and Social Security Act, sought to prevent future economic crises and establish a safety net for vulnerable populations․ These programs fundamentally altered the role of government in American life, establishing precedents for future social welfare policies․

C․ Impact of the New Deal on American Society

The New Deal dramatically expanded the federal government’s role in the economy and citizens’ lives, fostering a mixed economy․ It provided crucial relief to millions, though full employment remained elusive․ The Social Security Act established a lasting safety net for the elderly, unemployed, and disabled, reshaping social welfare․

Furthermore, the New Deal fostered a shift in political alignment, solidifying the Democratic Party’s base among labor unions, farmers, and minority groups․ While controversial, it fundamentally altered Americans’ expectations of government’s responsibility for their well-being and economic security․

IX․ The Road to World War II

The 1930s witnessed the rise of aggressive fascist regimes in Europe and Asia, spearheaded by Hitler’s Germany and militaristic Japan, challenging the post-WWI international order․ Initially, the United States clung to isolationism, enacting Neutrality Acts to avoid foreign entanglements, reflecting a widespread desire to avoid another costly war․

However, as Axis powers expanded their aggression – including Japan’s invasion of Manchuria and Italy’s actions in Ethiopia – American public opinion gradually shifted․ The “cash and carry” and “lend-lease” policies signaled increasing US involvement, ultimately paving the way for direct participation in WWII․

A․ Rise of Fascism and Aggression in Europe & Asia

The interwar period saw the emergence of totalitarian ideologies, notably Fascism in Italy under Mussolini and Nazism in Germany led by Hitler, fueled by post-WWI resentment and economic hardship․ Simultaneously, Japan pursued an expansionist policy in Asia, invading Manchuria in 1931, demonstrating aggressive militarism․

These regimes rejected democratic principles, embraced nationalism, and prioritized military buildup․ Their expansionist ambitions directly threatened international stability, violating treaties and escalating tensions, ultimately setting the stage for global conflict and challenging the existing world order․

B․ American Isolationism & Neutrality

Following the devastation of World War I, a strong isolationist sentiment gripped the United States, fueled by a desire to avoid entanglement in European conflicts․ This manifested in policies like the Neutrality Acts of the 1930s, designed to prevent American involvement in future wars by prohibiting arms sales and loans to belligerent nations․

Despite growing concerns about fascist aggression, public opinion and Congressional action largely favored non-intervention, reflecting a belief that the US should focus on domestic issues and avoid repeating the perceived mistakes of entering WWI․ This stance gradually eroded as the global situation deteriorated․

X․ World War II (1939-1945)

The attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 shattered American neutrality, propelling the US into World War II․ Mobilization on an unprecedented scale transformed the nation’s economy and society, with women and minorities entering the workforce in significant numbers․ Major battles, including Midway and D-Day, marked turning points in both the Pacific and European theaters․

The war’s conclusion witnessed the use of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, leading to Japan’s surrender and the end of the conflict, but also ushering in the nuclear age and the dawn of the Cold War․

A․ Causes of US Entry into WWII

Initially, the US maintained a policy of isolationism and neutrality, influenced by memories of WWI and the Great Depression․ However, growing aggression from Axis powers – Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan – challenged this stance․ The Lend-Lease Act provided aid to Allied nations, subtly shifting US involvement․

Ultimately, the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, proved the catalyst for US entry, uniting public opinion and prompting a declaration of war against Japan, and subsequently, Germany and Italy․

B․ The Home Front During WWII

World War II dramatically transformed the American home front․ Massive industrial mobilization ended the Great Depression, creating jobs and boosting the economy․ Women entered the workforce in unprecedented numbers, filling roles previously held by men, exemplified by “Rosie the Riveter․”

Rationing of essential goods, victory gardens, and war bond drives became commonplace․ Japanese Americans faced internment, a grave violation of civil liberties․ Propaganda promoted national unity and support for the war effort, shaping public opinion and fostering patriotism․

C․ Major Battles and Events of WWII

Key WWII battles included Pearl Harbor, initiating US involvement, and Midway, a turning point in the Pacific․ The D-Day invasion of Normandy marked the beginning of liberating Western Europe․ The Battle of the Bulge represented Germany’s last major offensive․

The US employed island-hopping strategies in the Pacific, culminating in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, leading to Japan’s surrender․ These events, alongside the Holocaust’s revelation, profoundly impacted global perceptions and ushered in a new era of international relations and American responsibility․

XI․ Post-War America & the Beginning of the Cold War

Post-WWII America experienced economic boom and suburban growth, fueled by the GI Bill and baby boom․ Simultaneously, the Cold War emerged, defined by ideological conflict with the Soviet Union․ Containment policy, articulated through the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan, aimed to prevent communist expansion․

The formation of NATO signaled a military alliance against Soviet aggression, while the Korean War became a proxy conflict․ Domestic anxieties fueled McCarthyism, a period of intense anti-communist suspicion, impacting civil liberties and shaping American political landscape for decades․